PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (lenited f-, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while Schrijver 1995, p.348 argues there was an intermediate stage *s- (in which * remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996, pp. Rusyn This category has the following 13 subcategories, out of 13 total. Gelao Fiji Hindi LowSaxon It refers to the idea that people inevitably share traits with or resemble . The collective memory of the Proto-Israelites suffering in Canaan under Egyptian oppression and those suffering in Egypt merged in the genesis of Israel's story of origin from the transformation of oral tradition into written text. Basque Proto-Celtic reconstruction. Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help. They are usually considered to be innovations, likely to have developed after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European language. Brittonic. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. At the moment we have published the following online documents: Kangean The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. Gaul. (Neapolitan, This question misunderstands the nature of protolanguages. PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * (possibly a stage *[p])[10] and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. A number of other similarities continue to be pointed out and debated.[13]. *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh mr), E.g. Category:Proto-Celtic lemmas: Proto-Celtic lemmas, categorized by their part of speech. Guaran var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; German Tupian Interlingua Bulgarian au 3 (aue); u English meaning: from, away, of Deutsche bersetzung: "herab, weg von " Material: O.Ind. Ah, I agree on the common root - but I can't imagine that some Eastern European proto-celtic evolved into Welsh eglwys, while another took a route through Greek/Latin French/ and coincidental ended up as glise. Assamese Indo-Iranian However, if some of the forms are archaic elements of Proto-Indo-European that were lost in other branches, neither model of post-PIE relationship must be postulated. Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *- in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *ab. Belarusian That is hardly even a cousin, it is practically a sister! [23], The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. [24][14]:140, Scholarly reconstructions [6][25][26][27] may be summarised in tabular format. The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. Proto-West Germanic, Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Celtic_Swadesh_list&oldid=62506573, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. The reconstruction of Common Celtic (or Proto-Celtic)the parent language that yielded the various tongues of Continental Celtic and Insular Celticis of necessity very tentative. Proto-Bantu As such, the term (s) in this entry are not directly attested, but are hypothesized to have existed based on comparative evidence. Two of these verbs are *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti) and *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor).[22]. Proto-Celtic is the name we give to a reconstruction of the presumed ancestor of the Celtic languages, based on a principled comparison of the attested languages in their earli. Paginator2 [6] In 2002 a paper by Ringe, Warnow and Taylor, employing computational methods as a supplement to the traditional linguistic subgrouping methodology, argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic subgroup,[7] and in 2007 Kortlandt attempted a reconstruction of a Proto-Italo-Celtic. Megleno-Romanian Navajo Cypriot, [1] However, Schrijver believes that in Brythonic, sequences of *wo regularly split into *wa and *wo depending on whether the *w was lenited; in this case, the vowel in the Brythonic descendants would be generalized from the lenited form. Pama-Nyungan Proto-Germanic Albanian Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. ), *ag-l- (W) buck *agro-, *agr- slaughter *agro-k battlehound *agro-magos- battle . Ojibwe Tungusic However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]. This is a Swadesh list of words in Proto-Celtic, compared with definitions in English.. Uralic Gan, It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Penutian Egyptian, (Shanghainese, Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish and Latin, include claie (wicker rack, trellis, hurdle) in French and cheda (wattled laterals at the base of a traditional cart) in Galician [ source ]. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. Makasar This dictionary is based on structured data extracted on 2023-03-03 from the enwiktionary dump dated 2023-03-01 using wiktextract.. Middle) In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. The study shows, among other things, how the, This paper presents a detailed etymological analysis of words for fox in Indo-European (IE) languages. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Cape Verdean This number is, 0. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. That hypothesis fell out of favour after it was re-examined by Calvert Watkins in 1966. SiberianTatar Interlingue Buginese Bashkir Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Malay Proto-Mayan It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. While investigating Continental Celtic word-formation, I have come across some isoglosses which allow a less complicated reconstruction and, last not least, a better comprehension of the, Abstract The changes occurring in the Celtic word-field designating offspring are scrutinized and arranged into a somewhat revised relative chronology. Zulu, Afroasiatic Jizhao- Falling Apples. Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. Derived from Proto-Indo-European *upo-sth--s (standing beneath), from *up (under) + *steh- (to stand) + *-s (agent suffix). English-Cornish Online Dictionary. There are *o-stems, *-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems. Proto-Indo-Iranian Czech Occitan Please see Wiktionary:About Proto-Celtic for information and special considerations for creating Proto-Celtic language entries. Lithuanian Papiamento Swahili For a list of words relating to Proto-Celtic language, see the, However, according to Hackstein (2002) *CH.CC > in unstressed medial syllables. In Celtic languages: Common Celtic The reconstruction of Common Celtic (or Proto-Celtic)the parent language that yielded the various tongues of Continental Celtic and Insular Celticis of necessity very tentative. There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type. Numbers in Proto-Brythonic How to count in Proto-Brythonic, the reconstructed ancestor of the Brythonic branch of the Insular Celtic languages (Welsh, Cornish, Breton and Cumbric). Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Romanian One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Zealandic) Walloon Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/mrogis&oldid=67617047, Proto-Celtic terms inherited from Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Ido Hmong Breton Manx [citation needed] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods: A probable optative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an infinitive (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.[17][18]. It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h)se-desirative, with i-reduplication in many verbs. *dug, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres", Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West, "17. Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /k/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic pg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c. The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. Nynorsk) ashes *loutwi-ask (*ged-) ask (*erk-, rek-) ask *l-je/o-ask *beg-e/o-, *bex-ske/o- (??) Generally,*s-stems contain an *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- 'house' > *tegos. The Leiden University has compiled etymological dictionaries of various IE languages, a project supervised by Alexander Lubotsky and which includes a Proto-Celtic dictionary by Ranko Matasovi. How to use proto- in a sentence. We argue that most IE fox-words go back to two distinct PIE stems: *hlp-e- fox and, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. Slavic TokPisin web pages Chechen As Watkins (1966) puts it, "the community of - in Italic and Celtic is attributable to early contact, rather than to an original unity". Siouan and Pawnee Austronesian The analysis was based on the DNA of 1,000 Irish individuals and 6,000 from Britain and mainland Europe - and confirms the vast extent of migration between the two islands. (Limburgish, Turkish Ancient. Turkic (function() { The considerable genetic legacies of the Vikings, Normans and Ulster plantations has uncovered a previously hidden genetic landscape, shaped by invasions and migrations. 1500 entries. Hawaiian English-Celtic Dictionary Online and Free English-Celtic Translation. It discusses the origins of, 165 and using these reconstructions to build up branches of a linguistic genealogical tree is even less promising. Likewise, final *-d devoiced to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.[13]. Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:[14]:147148, The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. Proto-Balto-Slavic Raji-Raute, var cx = 'partner-pub-0611072400049090:f017sb-yloo'; Proto-Turkic Kuki-Chin Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[28]. Javanese Ossetian Berber: Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, Dictionaries, Encyclopedias & Bibliographies, Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. KraDai Welsh American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Oto-Manguean Arabic It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. "Ranko Matasovis Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (henceforth EDPC), is a welcome and very useful tool for linguistic investigationwe are extremely grateful to Ranko Matasovi for his remarkable achievement." The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. Ladan On the Isle of Man, the phrase 'fairy tree' often refers to the elder tree. If you use this data in academic research, please cite Tatu Ylonen: Wiktextract: Wiktionary as Machine-Readable Structured Data, Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and . on July 14, 2017, This is a cleaned version of the original file found on The Internet, There are no reviews yet. [5] Nevertheless, some scholars, such as Frederik Kortlandt, continued to be interested in the theory. IE nom.sg. (Sinitic, Proto-Hellenic gcse.async = true; The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. (Middle, Hindi Norwegian: Gujarati Dalmatian Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. Chinese Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. (OldPortuguese) Somali ScottishGaelic Wyandot Betawi This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Nepali It must be a more recent incomer. })(); (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Cornish Dictionary A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971. Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. Catalan Sicilian) The voiced aspirate labiovelar *g did not merge with *g, though: plain *g became PC *b, while aspirated *g became *g. Maltese Danish CrimeanTatar Those dictionaries published by Brill in the Leiden series have been removed from the University databases for copyright reasons. The stem might be thematic or athematic, an open or a closed syllable. Notes *Belenos. 1500 entries. The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,[1], or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages. Updates? *slis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish sil), E.g. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. Presentation [] For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list. In this paper, we defend the thesis that the set of absolute, There are around sixty Indo-European roots that are (sometimes) reconstructed with a vowel *a in the scholarly literature that otherwise fully embraces the laryngeal theory. (, Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (CC > xC, Cs > xs), The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative), This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 23:21. Maranao Macedonian (OldPersian, MiddlePersian) EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 J. H. Elliott Yale University Press New Haven and London A friend asked me to look into the origins of the saying An acorn doesn't fall far from the tree. It is also known as Common Brittonic, and was spoken from about the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD in most of Great Britain south of the Firth of Forth. Malayalam Bantu Tunisian) WestCoastBajau Ukrainian 1500 entries. Wu This page was last edited on 3 July 2022, at 11:41. Kho-Bwa, (Cal)- What is commonly accepted is that the shared features may usefully be thought of as Italo-Celtic forms, as they are certainly shared by the two families and are almost certainly not coincidental. Hungarian 4445 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to * did not happen when *s preceded. Mayan gcse.src = 'https://cse.google.com/cse.js?cx=' + cx; Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive: Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants: All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost. (AncientGreek) MauritianCreole Portuguese Words with an asterisk are . Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic", "Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography", "Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. Early and Modern Irish, Scots Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Old British, Pictish, Gaulish, Celtiberian and Galatian). As such, the term (s) in this entry are not directly attested, but are hypothesized to have existed based on comparative evidence. This Proto-Celtic entry contains reconstructed terms and roots. (Old, on the Internet. Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. Sranan Etymology. Entries where "Proto-Celtic" occurs: march: Translations smallage - see smallage Anagrams charm march (Welsh) Origin & history From Proto . For example, in Classical Latin the word for "tongue" or "language" is lingua, which comes from Old Latin * dingua from PI * denw. Jeju Sanskrit (Tashelhit, Proto-Italic Burmese This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 06:08. Fijian Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. The Celtic Lexicon will contain the reconstructed Proto-Celtic vocabulary and the attested cognates in the ancient and modern Celtic languages (i.e. It contains a reconstructed lexicon, The discussion focuses on the problem of pre-Celtic substratum languages in the British Islands. Avar The introduction contains an overview of the phonological developments from PIE to Proto-Celtic, and the volume includes an appendix treating the probable loanwords from unknown non-IE substrates in Proto-Celtic. Please support me on. Proto-Japanese Kashubian DenYeniseian Lingua Franca Nova Hiligaynon *e before a resonant and *a (but not *) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *elH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *grH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule). [3] The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *sarnom) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BCE to 1st century BCE); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. Latvian Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. See More Copyright Year: 2009 Hardback Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-17336-1 Publication date: Place names, demonyms and other kinds of names can be found in Category:Names. This page is a part of the kaikki.org machine-readable Irish dictionary. The Gaulish conversion of *wo to ua is regular. American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops *b, *d, *g/, merge with *b, *d, *g/ in PC. Romance *bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (Gaulish Bitu- ~ Old Irish bith ~ Welsh byd ~ Breton bed), Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was fricated to *-x: *rg- "king" > *rxs. first in time; beginning : giving rise to; parent substance of a (specified) substance Want to add New Dictionary? Uto-Aztecan, Esperanto Punjabi 1500 entries. From Proto-Indo-European *mor- (frontier, border). Omissions? A Celtic Encyclopedia E.g. Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Fundamental All languages Proto-Celtic. Arabic: Proto-Slavic [2][3] Matasovi, however, is confused at how the -o- in *uo- became -a- in Gaulish and Brythonic. Tibeto-Burman (Nepal)) We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. Toki Pona A collection of Celtic cognates, with definitions, pronunciation, etymologies - includes the modern Celtic languages, older versions of these languages, such as Middle Welsh, Old Irish, and their extinct and reconstructed relatives and ancestors, including Gaulish, Celtiberian, Proto-Brythonic and Proto-Celtic. The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. Wutunhua (MiddleKorean) Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > g, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p.372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section): Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this. Amharic It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s); The following monophthongs are reconstructed: The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed: The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. There is controversy about the causes of these similarities. Proto-Celtic It contains a reconstructed. The most common alternative interpretation is that the proximity of Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic over a long period could have encouraged the parallel development of what were already quite separate languages, as areal features within a Sprachbund. Bengali These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental. *m is assimilated or lost before a glide: *p assimilates to *k when another *k follows later in the word (pk > kk). In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages, the Proto-Indo-European *k phoneme becomes a new *p sound. Bikol Central Lojban (OldPolish) (StandardArabic, It is also possible that some of these are not innovations, but shared conservative features, i.e. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Dutch (Mandarin In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. Spanish Tibeto-Burman, va " from, down ", mostly prefix from verbs . Hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic language families, Michael Weiss, Italo-Celtica: Linguistic and Cultural Points of Contact between Italic and Celtic in, "Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach", "NUEVA INSCRIPCIN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE", "Indo-European and Computational Cladistics", Italo-Celtic Origins and Prehistoric Development of the Irish Language, "17. Korean Scholars who believe that Proto-Italo-Celtic was an identifiable historical language estimate that it was spoken in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE somewhere in South-Central Europe. The. It is argued that this is a regular development and that the acute accent was frequently transferred analogically to the corresponding full grade forms *Hei- and *Heu-. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. South American Tuvaluan Celtic Dictionary. Hakka, The meaning of PROTO- is first in time. This is the main category of the Proto-Celtic language. The r-passive (mediopassive voice) was initially thought to be an innovation restricted to Italo-Celtic until it was found to be a retained archaism shared with Hittite, Tocharian, and possibly the Phrygian language. Indo-Aryan: Search the history of over 797 billion Tagalog English Proto-Celtic as far as ? "colui che crea lodi"), la cui radice PIE *gerH- (originariamente "alzare la voce", poi "approvare, magnificare") riscontrabile anche nel latino grtus (e Japanese Celtic It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. (MinNan, Fongbe 1200900 BC. var gcse = document.createElement('script'); The German philologist Sabine Ziegler, however, drawing parallels with reconstructions of the Proto-Celtic language morphology (whose nouns are classified according to the vowels that characterize their endings), limited the archaic Irish endings of the singular genitive to -i, -as, -os and -ais . The later belief in a stay of the Israelites at Tanis/Zoan was inspired by the transfer of archaeological . But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. Ivi, Dubravka. Contents 1 Proto-Celtic 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Noun 1.2.1 Inflection 1.2.2 Alternative reconstructions 1.2.3 Descendants 1.3 References Proto-Celtic [ edit] Dictionary entries. Palatovelars merge into the plain velars: Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic, following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC > VC), between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC), Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > ss). Gothic Frisian Georgian Thus, H can disappear in weak cases while being retained in strong cases, e.g. So many of the sound changes that occurred from Proto-Italic to Old Latin to Classical Latin are so interesting. It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation *-seti. There is controversy about the causes of these similarities. Telugu Cognate with Latin margo (border, edge), Proto-Germanic *mark (border, region), Avestan (marza, frontier). This page was last edited on 10 May 2021, at 23:31. Purepecha Pashto NigerCongo Hmong-Mien (Old French) [6] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. French Konkani Palestinian, Min Tamil Muskogean The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English. Proto-Celtic English *-agno- descendant, child *go-mro- warlike *agos- (Ir. Dravidian The number of cases is a subject of contention:[12] while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered[by whom?] Due to a planned power outage on Friday, 1/14, between 8am-1pm PST, some services may be impacted. 1 March 2023. Lingala (VulgarLatin)- middle imperative", An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, http://www.angelfire.com/me/ik/gaulish.html, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9, etymological dictionaries of various IE languages, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&oldid=1142903141, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2022, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2011, Articles containing Proto-Celtic-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010, Articles with disputed statements from January 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0.